Summary of the October-December 1996 Monitoring. Part B: Turkey and Yugoslavia.

(This summary is based on the reports of the first three months for most countries (by mid-January 1997, no reports were available from Macedonia, and only the October 1996 report from Turkey); because of its length, it comes in three parts.)

Mariana Lenkova

In October, 1996, the Turkish media devoted much space to Balkan issues, by directing their audience’s attention mainly to the development of the mutual relations between Turkey and its neighbors.

ALBANIA was the least covered country. Its people was presented as inclined to criminal behavior: "[N]ightmare of the inhabitants of (the Greek island of) Corfu: Albanian pirates raiding the island with Kalashnikof machine-guns and leaving after they spoil the yachts!" (M, 09/10).

The coverage of BULGARIA was limited to "cool" and informative articles as if that country were a far-away one and not Turkey’s neighbor. This was shown in the way the Turkish papers underscored the importance of the assassination of Bulgaria’s Former Prime Minister Andrey Lukanov: "Turmoil in Bulgaria"; "Bulgaria gets acquainted to political terrorism". However, the issue of ethnic the Turks living in Bulgaria remained the most sensitive one. An Islamist writer, Ismail Hekimoglu, commented on Bulgarian atrocities committed against Turks during the Ottoman-Russian War of 1877-78. Such was his description of the Bulgarians: "(From the Muslims) they learned what water-closet or bathroom is (...) If there exists a Bulgarian nation, it is due the sense of justice in Islam and compassion of the Muslims." (Z, 17/10). Apart from these historically-rooted problems, contemporary ones were discussed as well: "Low standards of nuclear power stations in Bulgaria entail for Turkey a Chernobyl-like threat"; "AIDS panic in Bulgaria"; "Forty-five cars stolen daily in Sofia". Bulgarians were openly appraised only when they sued the Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomeos: "Nationalist Turks too supported the Bulgarians at the court. (...) The words of Bogdav Chipov, a Bulgarian, were impressive: ‘We shall not kiss the hands of Greek priests’" (T, 04/10).

GREECE was undoubtfully the neighboring state which got the largest amount of negative articles in the Turkish dailies. Cyprus remained to be the "apple of discord" and brought forth stories of "Greek provocations" like: "The palikarias (a pejorative term standing for "Greek lads") have been further aroused by the military agreement signed between Greece and the Greek Cypriot administration. Any move, any action by the Greeks who have framed a Crusaders alliance against the Turks should be assessed in connection with this mentality. It would be greatest senselessness to leave the Greeks uncontrolled, due to the busy agenda of both the internal and foreign politics" ( T, 03/10). This issue was also discussed at the international background, thus concluding that "Greeks gone crazy: Athens and Socialist European MPs declare Hans van den Broek a traitor" (T, 11/10); "Having exhausted all other pretexts, Greeks mean to exploit the shooting of the Greek Cypriot for instigating the European Union to disrupt aid to Turkey" (T, 15/10); "US support for Turkey’s thesis: Daily Apogevmatini discloses a report by the US Navy supporting Turkish position and labels this an anti-Greek action" (Z, 31/10). Thus the Greeks were seen as dangerous to the economic interests of Turkey as well: "Devising plots after plots in order to corner Turkey in the customs union process (...) the Greek shift their provocations from the Aegean to Cyprus. It is now time for Ankara to unmask the true face of the Greek before the European public at large and before politicians and intellectuals" (S, 21/10). However, despite the political tensions, there were some positive economic developments, especially after Stephanopoulos’ statement on "Greece’s desire to enter into a sincere friendship and alliance with Turkey" which was interpreted by T. as indicative of "winds of peace on the Aegean" (10/10). But when there were no concrete outcomes from those deals, the papers were speaking about "obstruction[s] of the Greek counterparts by an invisible hand; though the Turkish government did not intervene into the affairs of Turkish businessmen, Greeks seem fearful of theirs." (YY, 02/10). Another painful issue which was covered was the situation of the Turkish minority in Western Thrace (in Greece) which "was abounding in spies" (T, 07/10). And last but not least, Greek media were said to have "framed a public which is nothing less than a monster with a grudge against Turkey" (M, 26/10)

The Turkish media complained that MACEDONIA denied the Turkish origin of a group living within its boundaries: "The Macedonian government denied the Jupa their Turkish origin and deemed them as Muslims of Macedonian origin"; We the Jupa Turks have migrated from Konya during the Ottoman period. We do not need designations such as Torbesh (a name used around Macedonia for Macedonian Muslims, Muslim Turks, or Pomaks)". (Z, 04/10). There was also one item, related to the first Turkish college to be opened in Skopje which included such a comment: "The Turkish college will reportedly have great contribution on the union and integrity of the Macedonian state."

ROMANIA got a predominantly positive coverage, due to the opportunities which that Balkan state provides to the Turkish businessmen: "They laid red carpets below Turks’ feet. (...) Romania highly appreciates Turkish businessmen by virtue of whom she managed to defy US quotations"; "Romania’s chances to join the EU makes her attractive"; "Branches of Turkish banks in Romania facilitate capital movements and improves bilateral economic relations"; "Turkish investors differ from other foreigners in that Turks are involved with sectors in which Romanians have poor records." (YY, Oct). However, some of the media wrote bitter and spiteful articles on the allegedly higher prospects of Romania and some other countries to join the EU before Turkey: "Turkey is absent among future EU members, whereas even Romania, Bulgaria, and Estonia are there..." (H, 17/10).

The other Balkan state - SERBIA - was present in the Turkish papers mainly through the news from Kosovo and other regions inhabited with Muslims: "Kosovo on al-Sirat [an imaginary bridge between Hell and Paradise]; [Kosovo is] fatal pit where 2 million Muslims were buried alive" (M, 01/10). An interesting comment on the people in this Serbian region was: "They esteem Turkish products above everything. This obsession reminds the obsession for European products that once prevailed in Turkey." (M, 03/10). An article which sounded even more positive was the one about the developments after the "Dayton Agreement [which] show that the concept of achieving lasting peace by strengthening Belgrade is still in force. This policy which has drawn no lessons from the events of 1991 can be summarized as follows: Peace in Bosnia has been reached thanks to Serbian president Milosevic, though he might also be charged with the responsibility of instigating hostilities in ex-Yugoslavia. Yet, Milosevic is a pragmatically minded leader, and achieving peace in Yugoslavia without his support might necessitate serious use of force. Therefore policies likely to be harmful for him should be avoided. (...) Ethnic Albanians should be persuaded to content themselves what will be granted by Milosevic, who has been made to recover his "reliability" due to "superior efforts" of mediators such as Lord Owen" (Z, 19/10).

Since Turkey is a very large country, it has a very numerous group of ethnic and religious minorities within its boundaries. The minority which got the largest coverage were the KURDS (they are not officially recognized). It is notable to point out that none of the papers held any prejudices against that group and reactions were directed mainly to the PKK (a Kurdish terrorist organization). The comments ran from one extreme to the other - from the complete denial of Kurdish identity ["Unique is the language of our state, as its territory and flag. (...) Education or broadcasting in Kurdish is equivalent to separate Kurds, our brothers, from the Turkish nation. The same are demanded by the PKK, Armenia and Greece, any of which will wish nothing beneficial to Turkey’s interests" (T, 21/10) and "Islamic law precludes existence of minorities among Muslims and the status of minority applies only to non-Muslims" (Z, 10/10)], through a neutral stand ["A military model of solving the Kurdish problem which resists all political reforms with the pretext that they will play into PKK’s hands contributes to the prevalence of the assumption that the official view of the Kurdish problem is the only valid one, and that the equalization of the Kurdish problem with the PKK is the only applicable reasoning" (YY, 12/10)], reaching an absolute acceptance of the idea that there is a separate Kurdish identity ["an incredible chauvinistic attitude" of the Turks who can preserve their integrity in many aspects other than the Kurdish issue "become supporters of fascism." (D, 07/10)].

The media were rather sensitive when discussing the issue of the GREEK minority, because the latter is not only ethnically different, but the religion of its members differs from that of the majority as well. That is why a tentative balance had to be struck between the risk of providing ground for the legitimization of other religions and that of falling into exclusivism: "A strange statement by the Patriarch: He complains to Greek daily To Vima that Greek community in Turkey faces treatment as inferior citizens whenever they attempt to claim their rights. (...) He alleges Turkey should pay more respect and care to minority rights" (Z, 08/10). Official Athens was implied in the "treacherous Slavo-Orthodox circle framed around Turkey" and there was even a warning that "[I]f the Greek government extends support for the Patriarchate in one form or another, this can only be explained by its plans to use against Turkey an institution which the latter fails to understand, not by Patriarchate’s being the leader of an alleged treacherous circle. Therefore status of the Patriarchate should be ameliorated and its dissolution should be prevented. And all these should be done not in order to use Patriarchate to a certain end, but because they are required by our cultural legacy" (Z, 05/10).

It is very interesting to point out that Turkish media provided a completely positive image of the GYPSIES/ROMANIES which were treated with a sense of admiration for the liberty embedded in their life style, much unlike their treatment in the other Balkan media. "For many years now we entertain people with our dances and music, we impart joy and elation. This is why people believe that Romanies’ life-style is based on merrymaking. It is just the contrary. Our music express our suffering, our seclusion and the repression we have experienced." (C, 06/10).

Guide to newspaper initials: H Hurriyet; M Milliyet; S Sabah; YY Yeni Yuzyil; T Turkiye; Z Zaman; D Demokrasi; C - Cumhuriyet.

In the period October-December, 1996, the Yugoslav media tended to present mainly negative evaluations of the neighboring Balkan states. At the same time, while dealing with their internal minorities, the tendency was even more pronounced, though of a different nature. The latter was so, because of the difference in the approaches of the official media on the one hand and the independent ones on the other. Thus the same events were covered in two self-contradictory ways, while the rational position was somewhere in between.

ALBANIA is a country which did not attract too much attention from the FRY media. It was presented in the stereotypical way of a "backward" state which tries to overcome the bad ancestry of the past, but there is still a long way ahead. Some "exotic" elements of the Albanian life were given in an ironical and even cynical way: "Jokes forbidden" [discussing the fact that the Albanian government forbade jokes about Germany and the USA "with a special decree". The reason for such a strange move were some inappropriate jokes about those Albanian patrons prepared for the New Year’s TV program] (VN, 09/12).

When talking about BULGARIA the media usually associated the country with organized crime and low living standards: "One should not go to Bulgaria without a big need. Mafia gangs which rob people operate there, while the police do not want or cannot do anything" (DT, 15/10); "Bulgaria is becoming a depot of narcotics" (VN, 18/11). The name of the neighboring country was associated with illegal cross-border trade as well and there were cases of reported racketeering which had been performed over smugglers from Serbia by Bulgarian customs officials. Having given more money to various "Bulgarian uniforms" than for the goods he bought, one smuggler told a reporter: "I think I will never again even mention the word ‘Bulgaria’, let alone go there". (NB, 10/12). And last but not least, there was one Bulgarian who provoked polarly different articles in the Serbian dailies - the Bulgarian football player Hristo Stoichkov. He was criticized for not wanting to give an interview (together with his Romanian colleague Popescu) to Serbian media on the eve of a football match between Barcelona (where they both play) and the Red Star from Belgrade. On the other hand he was highly praised for being the main sponsor of a theater festival in the Bulgarian town of Ruse.

GREECE was the country which got much attention and favorable comments from the FRY media, especially in the reports from a Greek-FRY scientific conference, when the media stressed the fact that the previous conference was held in 1993 in Athens "as a sign of support to the Serbian nation and the Serbian science, at a time of the harshest sanctions [against the FRY], when nobody else dared keep official relations with our science." (VN, 17/11). In this line was the moving reportage on humanitarian aid (the building of 98 houses) of the Greek city of Kalamaria to Banja Luka where Kalamaria’s mayor was quoted as saying that "the Serbian nation should not thank us for humanitarian aid. On the contrary, the Greek nation should be grateful to Serbs for awakening within us noble feelings of humanity and solidarity, that have begun to fade away" (P, 02/12). Even the information on Greek internal problems was positive, stressing that "Greece - which has never got anything from big words, grand promises and hot emotions - doesn’t have any other way but radical changes and modernization." (NB, 31/12). However, this idealization was not so evident when the media spoke about the problems which arose from the restrictive visa policy of the Greek state or the ones which concerned Macedonia (a former member of the Yugoslav Federation): "What Greeks are asking from Macedonians [to change the name of the country] is absurd and beyond any logic" (D, 11/10).

The image of MACEDONIA as presented in the FRY press, was either very positive [stressing the fact that the two states have finally reached good neighborly relations: "Serbs feel better in Macedonia" (D, 13/10)] or rather negative ones. The latter tended to be not only more numerous, but also full of irony. Thus the Southern neighbor was ridiculed for its official policy of asking for powerful foreign sponsors and patrons: "They want Yankees." (VN, 28/11). The denial of such international support was an even better source for satirical commentaries in the Serbian media: "High flight and splendid fall; a shameful deceit of a country whose general wishes are completely human and understandable". The conclusion from all this was that the only promising opportunity for Macedonia could be achieved through cooperation with the FR Yugoslavia, without which "the Gligorov’s oasis of peace would have been in trouble; Macedonia will in the future turn more to similar souls and those who consider friendship a moral and not a political category" (D, 15/11). However even in this atmosphere of "friendly neighborliness" the media saw "many attempts to spoil and hinder relations and comprehensive neighborly cooperation, defined by agreements, between the FR Yugoslavia and Macedonia, which obviously disturbs many in Macedonia and out of it." (D, 05/12)

ROMANIA is another Balkan state, which was usually presented as a pretty wild country, with unrestricted crime. Serbian newspapers reported on the smuggled uranium (VN, 18/12), on a Chinese whose head was cut off in a mafioso fight (DT, 04/12), and on the mafia king of Romania who was reported as saying, "What I am doing is really mafia business, but what is happening in my country as far as the spread of crime is concerned, goes beyond the era of well-known Al Capone" (VN, 07/12).

The most problematic issue which the FRY media discussed in regards to TURKEY was the threat coming from the latter’s Islamization: "There is no democracy without secularization. Soft Islam? That’s only a Trojan horse for naive democrats" (P, 06/10) and although "... fundamentalists keep penetrating the army structures, but they will occupy the terrain here with more difficulties, since generals will not raise white flags so easily" (P, 12/12) there is a danger that "... Turkey is slowly but with a long-run strategy moving away from the West." The other really problematic issue came from Turkey’s alleged imperial ambitions: "the renaissance of the Turkish imperial idea is threatening to generate big disturbances not only on the Balkans but also in the Black Sea region and further in Central Asia; one can get impression that the danger of radical Muslim projects is not being perceived in the West". [Slavenko Terzic, the main organizer of the historians’ conference "Islam, the Balkans and the Great Powers" and director of the Institute of History in an interview for Politika (15/12)]. However, there were lonely voices expressing the opposite suggestion that "[T]he main aim of Turkey is to unite with the West and Belgrade and Yugoslavia are the main stops on the road" (VN, 26/10).

When it comes to the internal minorities, it is notable to point out that the tendency is to paint the picture of utter friendship and understanding between the different ethnic groups in the FR Yugoslavia and the respective evil character of the leaders of those groups: "All the time [i.e. during the war in former Yugoslavia] and right here we have kept the equality of all citizens of this country and we have kept the state with the biggest number of nations on the Balkans, the only multi-ethnic state. All other states created out of former Yugoslavia are not multi-ethnic anymore, all others are cleaned. You know how much we have sacrificed to defend those sacred principles..." (D, 30/10, quoting Federal Deputy Prime Minister Nikola Sainovic). If all the above holds true, then it is easily explainable why one and the same paper - Vecernje Novosti - had two self-contradictory articles on representatives of the MUSLIM minority. On the one hand there was perceived the need for "agreement and cooperation" (08/11) between Serbs and the Sandzak Muslims and on the other - the need to counteract the "Muslim extremist" leaders like Sulejman Ugljanin "who fuelled nationalism and estranged people, only to leave their nation in the worst time" (30/10).

However, the minority which got the largest coverage in the three-month period were the ALBANIANS, especially when they reacted to the daily rallies against the government in Belgrade. This came forth after the warm message to the "Serbian brothers" and the support for the "democratic wishes of the Serbian nation" written by ethnic Albanian Adem Demaqui. The letter was followed by a series of completely polarized reactions in the Serbian press. The division line ran between the regime-controlled media and the independent ones. The former described the author as "a testified hater of all Serbs, a convinced separatist and a convict that deserved such thing, who still dreams about ‘the Republic of Kosovo’..." (VN, 07/12) because "a conflict within the Serbian nation is wanted, blood is wanted, so that they could, in the chaos that would have been created, make their decades long wish on the ‘Kosovo-republic’ true." (P, 07/12). The reactions from independent Serbian media were completely to the opposite: "Only a man of undisputed Demaqui’s authority among Albanians could write such sentences, which until yesterday, were unimaginable for any other Albanian, unless he would risk to be named a national traitor." (NB, 14/12) and "[E]xpressing the support to democratic forces and citizens’ movement in Serbia, he [Demaqui] risked of being accused in his own environment. And he must have known that the support would irritate authorities in Serbia and that it would be also used for the discrediting of the democratic coalition. Still, he spoke what he thought and he sent nice words to the Serbian nation, which only malicious interpreters will understand as hypocritical." (N) There were even times when the press tried to sound a little more optimistic about the success in the relationship between Serbs and Albanians in Kosovo because "the economy connects Serbs and Albanians" (P, 20/12). That is why "during the activity of the party in power, [Kosovo] is one of the most stable regions in Serbia and Yugoslavia; here, order, work and peace dominate over the instigators of disorder and mutinies." (D, 31/12). There were even some self-critical texts on how "Belgrade is making Balkan Negroes out of Albanians" (DT, 09/11).